Title:
Communication, Information and Knowledge Exchange in the Prevention of Antimicrobial Resistance in South Africa and Worldwide: A Narrative Bioethical Review
Full Reference List:
| 1. | Abbo, L. M., Cosgrove, S. E., Pottinger, P. S., Pereyra, M., Sinkowitz-Cochran, R., Srinivasan, A., Webb, D. J., & Hooton, T. M. (2013). Medical Students’ Perceptions and Knowledge About Antimicrobial Stewardship: How Are We Educating Our Future Prescribers? Clinical Infectious Diseases, 57(5), 631-638. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cit370. |
| 2. | Abramson, C. M. (2012). From “Either-Or” to “When and How”: A Context-Dependent Model of Culture in Action. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 42(2), 155-180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5914.2011.00484.x. |
| 3. | Abrokwa, S. K., Ruby, L. C., Heuvelings, C. C., & Bélard, S. (2022). Task shifting for point of care ultrasound in primary healthcare in low- and middle-income countries-a systematic review. EClinicalMedicine, 45, Article number 101333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101333. |
| 4. | Adugna, T., Yewhelew, D., Getu, E. (2021). Bloodmeal sources and feeding behavior of anopheline mosquitoes in Bure district, northwestern Ethiopia. Parasites & Vectors 14, Article number 166. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-021-04669-7. |
| 5. | Agudo, R., Reche, M. P. (2024). Revealing antibiotic resistance’s ancient roots: insights from pristine ecosystems. Frontiers in Microbiology 15, Article number 1445155. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1445155. |
| 6. | Ahadzi, D., & Beasley, M. (2023). A case for task-shifting in the management and care of heart failure patients in Ghana: Experience from Yale University. Journal of Cardiac Failure 29(3), 419-421 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cardfail.2022.12.010. |
| 7. | Ahmed, B. N., Sultana, Y., Fatema, D., Ara, K., Begum, N., Mostanzid, S., Jubayer, S. (2010). Anthrax: an emerging zoonotic disease in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Medical Microbiology 4(1), 46-50. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjmm.v4i1.8470. |
| 8. | Akpan, M. R., Isemin, N. U., Udoh, A. E., & Ashiru-Oredope, D. (2020). Implementation of antimicrobial stewardship programmes in African countries: A systematic literature review. Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance, 22, 317-324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgar.2020.03.009. |
| 9. | Alam, M. E., Kamal, M. M., Rahman, M., Kabir, A., Islam, M. S., Hassan, J. (2022). Review of anthrax: A disease of farm animals. Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research 9(2), 323-334. doi: 10.5455/javar.2022.i599. |
| 10. | Alem, K., Dagnew, M., Gizachew, M., Gelaw, B., Moges, F. (2025). Environmental Antimicrobial Resistance: Key Drivers, Hotspots, Innovative Strategies, and Challenges in the Fight Against Superbugs. Microbiologyopen 14(5), Article number e70067. doi: 10.1002/mbo3.70067. |
| 11. | Australian Research Council, Queensland University of Technology, The University of Adelaide, & UNESCO. (2007). Introduction to Ethnographic Action Research - Communicative Ecology. http://ear.findingavoice.org/intro/2-0.html (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 12. | Baccolini, V., Rosso, A., Di Paolo, C., Isonne, C., Salerno, C., Migliara, G., Prencipe, G. P., Massimi, A., Marzuillo, C., De Vito, C., Villari, P., & Romano, F. (2021). What is the Prevalence of Low Health Literacy in European Union Member States? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 36(3), 753-761. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-020-06407-8. |
| 13. | Bandura, A. (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education & Behavior: The Official Publication of the Society for Public Health Education 31(2), 143-164. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198104263660. |
| 14. | Baum, F., MacDougall, C., & Smith, D. (2006). Participatory action research. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 60(10), 854-857. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2004.028662. |
| 15. | Benatar, S. (2013). The challenges of health disparities in South Africa. SAMJ: South African Medical Journal 103(3), 154-155. |
| 16. | Bertagnolio, S., Dobreva, Z., Centner, C. M., Olaru, I. D., Donà, D., Burzo, S., Huttner, B. D., Chaillon, A., Gebreselassie, N., Wi, T., Hasso-Agopsowicz, M., Allegranzi, B., Sati, H., Ivanovska, V., Kothari, K. U., Balkhy, H. H., Cassini, A., Hamers, R. L., Weezenbeek, K. V. (2024). WHO Research Agenda for AMR in Human Health Collaborators. WHO global research priorities for antimicrobial resistance in human health. Lancet Microbe 5(11), Article number 100902. doi: 10.1016/S2666-5247(24)00134- |
| 17. | Bheekie, A., & Bradley, H. (2016). Re-engineering of South Africa’s primary health care system: Where is the pharmacist? South African Family Practice 58(6), 242-248. https://doi.org/10.1080/20786190.2016.1186365. |
| 18. | Biney, E., Amoateng, A. Y., Ewemooje, O. S. (2020). Inequalities in morbidity in South Africa: A family perspective. SSM - Population Health 12, Article number 100653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100653. |
| 19. | Boyles, T. H., Whitelaw, A., Bamford, C., Moodley, M., Bonorchis, K., Morris, V., Rawoot, N., Naicker, V., Lusakiewicz, I., Black, J., Stead, D., Lesosky, M., Raubenheimer, P., Dlamini, S., & Mendelson, M. (2013). Antibiotic stewardship ward rounds and a dedicated prescription chart reduce antibiotic consumption and pharmacy costs without affecting inpatient mortality or re-admission rates. PloS One 8(12), Article number e79747. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079747. |
| 20. | Brink, A. J., Messina, A. P., Feldman, C., Richards, G. A., Becker, P. J., Goff, D. A., Bauer, K. A., Nathwani, D., van den Bergh, D., & Netcare Antimicrobial Stewardship Study Alliance. (2016). Antimicrobial stewardship across 47 South African hospitals: An implementation study. The Lancet. Infectious Diseases 16(9), 1017-1025. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30012-3. |
| 21. | Brito, A. F., Semenova, E., Dudas, G., Hassler, G. W., Kalinich, C. C., Kraemer, M. U. G., Ho, J., Tegally, H., Githinji, G., Agoti, C. N., Matkin, L. E., Whittaker, C.; Bulgarian SARS-CoV-2 sequencing group; Communicable Diseases Genomics Network (Australia and New Zealand); COVID-19 Impact Project; Danish Covid-19 Genome Consortium; Fiocruz COVID-19 Genomic Surveillance Network; GISAID core curation team; Network for Genomic Surveillance in South Africa (NGS-SA); Swiss SARS-CoV-2 Sequencing Co |
| 22. | Broad, G. M., Ball-Rokeach, S. J., Ognyanova, K., Stokes, B., Picasso, T., & Villanueva, G. (2013). Understanding Communication Ecologies to Bridge Communication Research and Community Action. Journal of Applied Communication Research 41(4), 325–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2013.844848. |
| 23. | Brown, C. M., Oosthuizen, R., Tandlich, R. (2024). Biological hazards and disaster risk: complexity of causes and solutions, and overview of management implications. Transactions of the VSB - Technical University of Ostrava - Safety Engineering Series XIX(1), 12-29. doi: 10.35182/tses-2024-0002. |
| 24. | Centre for Social Justice and Community Action, Durham University & National Co-ordinating Centre for Public Engagement. (2012). Community-based participatory research—A guide to ethical principles and practice. https://www.durham.ac.uk/media/durham-university/departments-/sociology/Community-Based-Participatory-Research-A-Guide-to-Ethical-Principles,-2nd-edition-(2022)-.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 25. | Chapman, E. D., Maguire, K., Oosthuizen, R., Tandlich, T., Tandlich, R. (2025). Tolerability of risk: from personal crises, through biological hazards and disasters to theoretical and legal considerations. Emergency Medicines Ukraine (in press). |
| 26. | Chetty, S., Reddy, M., Ramsamy, Y., Naidoo, A., & Essack, S. (2019). Antimicrobial stewardship in South Africa: A scoping review of the published literature. JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance, 1(3), dlz060. https://doi.org/10.1093/jacamr/dlz060. |
| 27. | Chetty, S. (2021). South Africa’s capacity to conduct antimicrobial stewardship. Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases 36(1), Article number 297. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v36i1.297. |
| 28. | Clarke, M., Clarke, M., Lewin, S., & Dick, J. (2008). Community health workers in South Africa: Where in this maze do we find ourselves? South African Medical Journal 98(9), Article number 680. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.1700. |
| 29. | Cox, J. A., Vlieghe, E., Mendelson, M., Wertheim, H., Ndegwa, L., Villegas, M. V., Gould, I., & Levy Hara, G. (2017). Antibiotic stewardship in low- and middle-income countries: The same but different? Clinical Microbiology and Infection 23(11), 812-818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2017.07.010. |
| 30. | Crain, C. (2018, June 14). Why We Don’t Read, Revisited - The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/why-we-dont-read-revisited (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 31. | Denyer Willis, L., & Chandler, C. (2019). Quick fix for care, productivity, hygiene and inequality: Reframing the entrenched problem of antibiotic overuse. BMJ Global Health 4(4), Article number e001590. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-001590. |
| 32. | Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2012). EHealth Strategy South Africa 2012-2016. https://www.hst.org.za/publications/NonHST%20Publications/eHealth_Strategy_South_Africa_2012-2016.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 33. | Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2014a). Antimicrobial Resistance National Strategy Framework 2014-2024. https://cct.mycpd.co.za/fidssa/Antimicrobial_Resistance_National_Strategy_Framework_2014-2024_final.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 34. | Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2014b). Antimicrobial Resistance Background Document. https://cct.mycpd.co.za/fidssa/AMR_Background_document_FINAL_March15.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 35. | Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2015-2024). Antimicrobial Resistance Background Document. FIDSSA. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Antimicrobial-Resistance-Background-Document.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 36. | Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2018a). South African Antimicrobial Resistance National Strategy Framework; A One Health Approach 2018—2024. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/antimicrobial-resistance/amr-spc-npm/nap-library/south-africa-antimicrobial-resistance-national-action-plan-2018---2024.pdf?sfvrsn=533118b0_1 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 37. | Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2018b). Surveillance for Antimicrobial Resistance and Consumption of Antibiotics in South Africa. https://www.knowledgehub.org.za/system/files/elibdownloads/2020-03/AMR%20Surveillance%20report%20South%20Africa%20-%20Nov2018.pdf and https://knowledgehub.health.gov.za/system/files/elibdownloads/2024-05/South%20African%20AMR%20Surveillance%20Report%202022_FINAL.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 38. | Dhingra, S., Rahman, N. A. A., Peile, E., Rahman, M., Sartelli, M., Hassali, M. A., Islam, T., Islam, S., Haque, M. (2020). Microbial Resistance Movements: An Overview of Global Public Health Threats Posed by Antimicrobial Resistance, and How Best to Counter. Frontiers in Public Health 8, Article number 535668. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.535668. |
| 39. | Doi-Kanno, M., Kanoya, Y., & Moriguchi, E. H. (2021). The effects of a leaflet-based health guide on health literacy, self-efficacy, and satisfaction among older Japanese-Brazilian adults living in Brazil: A quasi-experimental study. BMC Public Health 21(1), Article number 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-10129-1. |
| 40. | Dyar, O. J., Howard, P., Nathwani, D., Pulcini, C., & ESGAP (the ESCMID [European Society of Clinical Microbiology, Infectious Diseases] Study Group for Antibiotic Policies). (2013). Knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of French medical students about antibiotic prescribing and resistance. Medecine Et Maladies Infectieuses 43(10), 423-430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medmal.2013.07.010. |
| 41. | Dyar, O. J., Pulcini, C., Howard, P., Nathwani, D., on behalf of ESGAP, (the ESCMID Study Group for Antibiotic Policies), Nathwani, D., Beovic, B., Pulcini, C., Harbarth, S., Hanberger, H., Pagani, L., Paño Pardo, J. R., Howard, P., & Weschesler-Fördös, A. (2014). European medical students: A first multicentre study of knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of antibiotic prescribing and antibiotic resistance. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 69(3), 842-846. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkt440. |
| 42. | Ebied, M. (2025). American Society for Microbiology: How Human Conflict Accelerates Antimicrobial Resistance. https://asm.org/articles/2025/september/how-human-conflict-accelerates-antimicrobial-resis (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 43. | EClinicalMedicine. (2021). Antimicrobial resistance: A top ten global public health threat. EClinical Medicine, 41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.101221. |
| 44. | Ehsan, H. (2025), Antibiotic Resistance in Developing Countries: Emerging Threats and Policy Responses. Public Health Challenges 4, Article number e70034. https://doi.org/10.1002/puh2.70034. |
| 45. | Ellis, J., Vassilev, I., Kennedy, A., Moore, M., & Rogers, A. (2019). Help seeking for antibiotics; is the influence of a personal social network relevant? BMC Family Practice 20(1), Article number 63. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-019-0955-2. |
| 46. | Elsey, H., Tolhurst, R., & Theobald, S. (2005). Mainstreaming HIV/AIDS in development sectors: Have we learnt the lessons from gender mainstreaming? AIDS Care 17(8), 988-998. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120500102250. |
| 47. | Endale, H., Mathewos, M., Abdeta, D. (2023). Potential Causes of Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance and Preventive Measures in One Health Perspective-A Review. Infection and Drug Resistance 16, 7515-7545. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S428837. |
| 48. | Engler, D., Meyer, J. C., Schellack, N., Kurdi, A., & Godman, B. (2021). Antimicrobial Stewardship Activities in Public Healthcare Facilities in South Africa: A Baseline for Future Direction. Antibiotics 10(8), Article number 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10080996. |
| 49. | Enshaie, E., Nigam, S., Patel, S., Rai, V. (2025). Livestock Antibiotics Use and Antimicrobial Resistance. Antibiotics (Basel) 14(6), Article number 621. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics14060621. |
| 50. | EU-JAMRAI. (2021). Toolkit for awareness-raising and behaviour change communication on AMR. https://eu-jamrai.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/EUjamrai_Toolkit-for-awareness-raising-and-behaviour-change-communication-on-AMR_WP8_2021.03.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 51. | EuroMed Info. (2023). How culture influences health beliefs. https://www.euromedinfo.eu/how-culture-influences-health-beliefs.html/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 52. | Ezhova, E., Orlov, D., Suhonen, E., Kaverin, D., Mahura, A., Gennadinik, V., Kukkonen, I., Drozdov, D., Lappalainen, H. K., Melnikov, V., Petäjä, T., Kerminen, V. M., Zilitinkevich, S., Malkhazova, S. M., Christensen, T. R, Kulmala, M. (2021). Climatic Factors Influencing the Anthrax Outbreak of 2016 in Siberia, Russia. Ecohealth 18(2), 217-228. doi: 10.1007/s10393-021-01549-5. |
| 53. | Fasanella, A., Garofolo, G., Galante, D., Quaranta, V., Palazzo, L., Lista, F., Adone, R., Jones, M. H. (2010). Severe anthrax outbreaks in Italy in 2004: considerations on factors involved in the spread of infection. New Microbiology 33(1): 83-86. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/43199875_Severe_anthrax_outbreaks_in_Italy_in_2004_Considerations_on_factors_involved_in_the_spread_of_infection (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 54. | FIDSSA. (2022). The Federation of Infectious Diseases Societies of Southern Africa. https://www.fidssa.co.za/about-fidssa/purpose-and-objectives (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 55. | Fujinaga, Y. (2006). Transport of bacterial toxins into target cells: pathways followed by cholera toxin and botulinum progenitor toxin. Journal of Biochemistry 140(2), 155-160. doi: 10.1093/jb/mvj161. |
| 56. | Gajdács, M., Urbán, E., Stájer, A., & Baráth, Z. (2021). Antimicrobial Resistance in the Context of the Sustainable Development Goals: A Brief Review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education 11(1), 71-82. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe11010006. |
| 57. | Gallup. (2020). Assessing the Economic Gains of Eradicating Illiteracy Nationally and Regionally in the United States. https://www.barbarabush.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/BBFoundation_GainsFromEradicatingIlliteracy_9_8.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 58. | Garney, W. R., Beaudoin, C. E., Clark, H. R., Drake, K. N., Wendel, M. L., McLeroy, K. R., Castle, B. F., Ingram, C. M., Jackson, V., & Shaw, R. L. (2015). Using Community-Based Participatory Research to Disseminate a Mass Media Campaign Into Rural Communities. Journal of Health Communication 20(7), 799-806. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2015.1018588. |
| 59. | Gelband, H. (2015). The Global Antibiotic Resistance Partnership. http://www.globalhealthdynamics.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/15_Gelband.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 60. | George, G., Atujuna, M., & Gow, J. (2013). Migration of South African health workers: The extent to which financial considerations influence internal flows and external movements. BMC Health Services Research 13, Article number 297. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-13-297. |
| 61. | Ghafur, A. (2015). Overconsumption of antibiotics. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 15(4), Article number 377. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(15)70081-2. |
| 62. | Glanz, K., Rimer, B. K., & Viswanath, K. (2008). Health Behavior and Health Education—Theory, Research and Practice—4th Edition. Jossey-Bass. https://books.google.co.za/books/about/Health_Behavior_and_Health_Education.html?id=1xuGErZCfbsC&redir_esc=y (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 63. | Global Leaders Group on Antimicrobial Resistance. (2023). Global Leaders Group on Antimicrobial Resistance. https://www.amrleaders.org (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 64. | Goff, D. A., Kullar, R., Goldstein, E. J. C., Gilchrist, M., Nathwani, D., Cheng, A. C., Cairns, K. A., Escandón-Vargas, K., Villegas, M. V., Brink, A., Bergh, D. van den, & Mendelson, M. (2017). A global call from five countries to collaborate in antibiotic stewardship: United we succeed, divided we might fail. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 17(2), e56-e63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30386-3. |
| 65. | Haenssgen, M. J., Xayavong, T., Charoenboon, N., Warapikuptanun, P., & Khine Zaw, Y. (2018). The Consequences of AMR Education and Awareness Raising: Outputs, Outcomes, and Behavioural Impacts of an Antibiotic-Related Educational Activity in Lao PDR. Antibiotics 7(4), Article number 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics7040095. |
| 66. | Hassenforder, E., Pittock, J., Barreteau, O., Daniell, K. A., & Ferrand, N. (2016). The MEPPP Framework: A Framework for Monitoring and Evaluating Participatory Planning Processes. Environmental Management 57(1), 79-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-015-0599-5. |
| 67. | Health Systems Trust. (2011). Community Health Workers—A Brief Description of the HST Experience. https://www.hst.org.za/publications/HST%20Publications/CHWs_HSTexp022011.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 68. | Health Systems Trust & South African Department of Health. (2007). Moving Towards Best Practice: Documenting and Learning from Existing Community Health/Care Worker Programmes. https://www.hst.org.za/publications/HST%20Publications/chws_bestpractice.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 69. | Health Systems Trust & South African Department of Health. (2011). An Audit of Community Health Workers in the Districts of the North West Province. http://www.jphcf.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Final%20Report-%20Audit%20of%20CHWs%20in%20the%20NWP%2010%20Oct%202011.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 70. | Hlalo, C. (2018). An investigation into antimicrobial prescribing and usage patterns in the Johannesburg Metro District, Gauteng Province. SA Pharmaceutical Journal 85(4), 78-80. https://doi.org/10.10520/EJC-10e25132b5. |
| 71. | Hodgins, F., Gnich, W., Ross, A. J., Sherriff, A., & Worlledge-Andrew, H. (2016). How lay health workers tailor in effective health behaviour change interventions: A protocol for a systematic review. Systematic Reviews 5(1), Article number 102. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-016-0271-z. |
| 72. | Hodgins, S., Kok, M., Musoke, D., Lewin, S., Crigler, L., LeBan, K., & Perry, H. B. (2021). Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 1. Introduction: tensions confronting large-scale CHW programmes. Health Research Policy and Systems 19(3), Article number 109. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00752-8. |
| 73. | Hou, J., Long, X., Wang, X., Li, L., Mao, D., Luo, Y., & Ren, H. (2023). Global trend of antimicrobial resistance in common bacterial pathogens in response to antibiotic consumption. Journal of Hazardous Materials 442, Article number 130042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130042. |
| 74. | Howard, P., Pulcini, C., Levy Hara, G., West, R. M., Gould, I. M., Harbarth, S., & Nathwani, D. (2015). An international cross-sectional survey of antimicrobial stewardship programmes in hospitals. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 70(4), 1245-1255. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dku497. |
| 75. | Hu, H., Yang, Y., Zhang, C., Huang, C., Guan, X., & Shi, L. (2021). Review of social networks of professionals in healthcare settings—Where are we and what else is needed? Globalization and Health 17(1), Article number 139. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-021-00772-7. |
| 76. | Hughes, J. M., Gerberding, J. L. (2002). Anthrax bioterrorism: lessons learned and future directions. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8(10), 1013-1014. doi: 10.3201/eid0810.020466. |
| 77. | Huttner, B., Harbarth, S., & Nathwani, D. (2014). Success stories of implementation of antimicrobial stewardship: A narrative review. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 20(10), 954-962. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-0691.12803. |
| 78. | Huttner, B., Saam, M., Moja, L., Mah, K., Sprenger, M., Harbarth, S., & Magrini, N. (2019). How to improve antibiotic awareness campaigns: Findings of a WHO global survey. BMJ Global Health 4(3), Article number e001239. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2018-001239. |
| 79. | Ivankova, N. V., Creswell, J. W., Stick, S. L. (2006). Using mixed-methods sequential explanatory design: from theory to practice. Field Methods 18(1), Article number 3-20. doi: 10.1177/1525822X05282260. |
| 80. | Iheanetu, C. U., Maguire, K. A., Moricová, V., Alloggio, S., Tandlich, R. (2023). Utilitarian qubit, human geography and pandemic prepared-ness in the 21st century. Sustainability 15(1), Article number 321. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010321. |
| 81. | James, R., Upjohn, L., Cotta, M., Luu, S., Marshall, C., Buising, K., & Thursky, K. (2015). Measuring antimicrobial prescribing quality in Australian hospitals: Development and evaluation of a national antimicrobial prescribing survey tool. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 70(6), 1912-1918. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkv047. |
| 82. | Kakkar, A. K., Shafiq, N., Singh, G., Ray, P., Gautam, V., Agarwal, R., Muralidharan, J., & Arora, P. (2020). Antimicrobial Stewardship Programs in Resource Constrained Environments: Understanding and Addressing the Need of the Systems. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, article number 140. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00140. |
| 83. | Kariuki, S. K., Njunge, J., Muia, A., Muluvi, G., Gatei, W., Ter Kuile, F., Terlouw, D. J., Hawley, W. A., Phillips-Howard, P. A., Nahlen, B. L., Lindblade, K. A., Hamel, M. J., Slutsker, L,, Shi, Y. P. (2013). Effect of malaria transmission reduction by insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) on the genetic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein (MSP-1) and circumsporozoite (CSP) in western Kenya. Malaria Journal 12, Article number 295. doi: 10.1186/1475-2875-12-295. |
| 84. | Klein, E. Y., Van Boeckel, T. P., Martinez, E. M., Pant, S., Gandra, S., Levin, S. A., Goossens, H., & Laxminarayan, R. (2018). Global increase and geographic convergence in antibiotic consumption between 2000 and 2015. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(15), E3463-E3470. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1717295115. |
| 85. | Klein, E. Y., Milkowska-Shibata, M., Tseng, K. K., Sharland, M., Gandra, S., Pulcini, C., & Laxminarayan, R. (2021). Assessment of WHO antibiotic consumption and access targets in 76 countries, 2000–15: An analysis of pharmaceutical sales data. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 21(1), 107-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30332-7. |
| 86. | Koenig, C. J., Maguen, S., Monroy, J. D., Mayott, L., & Seal, K. H. (2014). Facilitating culture-centered communication between health care providers and veterans transitioning from military deployment to civilian life. Patient Education and Counseling 95(3), 414-420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2014.03.016. |
| 87. | Kreuter, M. W., Lukwago, S. N., Bucholtz, D. C., Clark, E. M., & Thompson, V. S. (2003). Achieving Cultural Appropriateness in Health Promotion Programs. Health Education & Behavior 30(2), 133-146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1090198102251021. |
| 88. | Kreuter, M. W., & McClure, S. M. (2004). The Role of Culture in Health Communication. Annual Review of Public Health 25(1), 439-455. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123000. |
| 89. | Latif, A. S. (2020). The Importance of Understanding Social and Cultural Norms in Delivering Quality Health Care—A Personal Experience Commentary. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 5(1), Article number 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed5010022. |
| 90. | Laxminarayan, R., Duse, A., Wattal, C., Zaidi, A. K. M., Wertheim, H. F. L., Sumpradit, N., Vlieghe, E., Hara, G. L., Gould, I. M., Goossens, H., Greko, C., So, A. D., Bigdeli, M., Tomson, G., Woodhouse, W., Ombaka, E., Peralta, A. Q., Qamar, F. N., Mir, F., … Cars, O. (2013). Antibiotic resistance—The need for global solutions. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 13(12), 1057-1098. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70318-9. |
| 91. | Laxminarayan, R., Matsoso, P., Pant, S., Brower, C., Røttingen, J.-A., Klugman, K., & Davies, S. (2016). Access to effective antimicrobials: A worldwide challenge. The Lancet 387(10014), 168-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00474-2. |
| 92. | Lee, Y. (Yumi), Bradley, N. (2021). A Peer Educational Tool to Promote Antimicrobial Stewardship on a University Campus. Pharmacy 9(4), Article 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy9040199. |
| 93. | Llor, C., & Bjerrum, L. (2014). Antimicrobial resistance: Risk associated with antibiotic overuse and initiatives to reduce the problem. Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety, 5(6), 229-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042098614554919. |
| 94. | Long, T., & Johnson, M. (2000). Rigour, reliability and validity in qualitative research. Clinical Effectiveness in Nursing 4(1), 30-37. https://doi.org/10.1054/cein.2000.0106. |
| 95. | Lucien, M. A. B., Canarie, M. F., Kilgore, P. E., Jean-Denis, G., Fénélon, N., Pierre, M., Cerpa, M., Joseph, G. A., Maki, G., Zervos, M. J., Dely, P., Boncy, J., Sati, H., Rio, A. del, & Ramon-Pardo, P. (2021). Antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in the COVID-19 era: Perspective from resource-limited settings. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 104, 250-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.12.087. |
| 96. | Malik, M., Zaidi, R. Z., & Hussain, A. (2017). Health Literacy as a Global Public Health Concern: A Systematic Review. Journal of Pharmacology & Clinical Research 4(2), Article number 555632. https://doi.org/10.19080/JPCR.2017.04.555632. |
| 97. | Mancosa - Private Higher Education Institution in South Africa (Mancosa, 2025). Important Information - UNDERGRADUATE FEE SCHEDULE 2025. https://www.mancosa.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Mancosa-Undergraduate-Fee-2025.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 98. | Mancuso, G., Midiri, A., Gerace, E., Biondo, C. (2021). Bacterial Antibiotic Resistance: The Most Critical Pathogens. Pathogens 10(10), Article number 1310. doi: 10.3390/pathogens10101310. |
| 99. | Maphumulo, W. T., & Bhengu, B. R. (2019). Challenges of quality improvement in the healthcare of South Africa post-apartheid: A critical review. Curationis 42(1), Article number 1901. https://doi.org/10.4102/curationis.v42i1.1901. |
| 100. | Masis, L., Gichaga, A., Zerayacob, T., Lu, C., & Perry, H. B. (2021). Community health workers at the dawn of a new era: 4. Programme financing. Health Research Policy and Systems 19(3), Article number 107. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-021-00751-9. |
| 101. | McMaster University. (undated). The Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database. https://card.mcmaster.ca/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 102. | Medical Brief (2024). Government’s NHI claims are ‘fallacies’, says BHF. https://www.medicalbrief.co.za/governments-nhi-claims-are-fallacies-says-bhf/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 103. | Meherali, S., Punjani, N. S., & Mevawala, A. (2020). Health Literacy Interventions to Improve Health Outcomes in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Health Literacy Research and Practice 4(4), e251-e266. https://doi.org/10.3928/24748307-20201118-01. |
| 104. | Mendelson, M., & Matsoso, M. P. (2017). The South African Antimicrobial Resistance Strategy Framework. http://resistancecontrol.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/08_Mendelson-Matsotso.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 105. | Merzel, C., & D’Afflitti, J. (2003). Reconsidering Community-Based Health Promotion: Promise, Performance, and Potential. American Journal of Public Health 93(4), 557-574. doi: 10.2105/ajph.93.4.557. |
| 106. | Mileham, D. (2025). Pharmacist shortage in South Africa: a crisis for healthcare. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/dmilehamza_the-pharmacist-shortage-in-south-africa-is-activity-7321541891802447872-UNUJ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 107. | Mitchell, J., Cooke, P., Baral, S., Bull, N., Stones, C., Tsekleves, E., Verdezoto, N., Arjyal, A., Giri, R., Shrestha, A., & King, R. (2019). The values and principles underpinning community engagement approaches to tackling antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Global Health Action 12(sup1), Article number 1837484. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2020.1837484. |
| 108. | Mitchell, J., Cooke, P., Ahorlu, C., Arjyal, A., Baral, S., Carter, L., Dasgupta, R., Fieroze, F., Fonseca-Braga, M., Huque, R., Lewycka, S., Kalpana, P., Saxena, D., Tomley, F., Tsekleves, E., Vu Thi Quynh, G., & King, R. (2022). Community engagement: The key to tackling Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) across a One Health context? Global Public Health 17(11), 2647-2664. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2021.2003839. |
| 109. | Moore, J. E., & Millar, B. C. (2021). Improving IPC health literacy through better communication: Investigation of the readability of IPC patient information leaflets from several sources. Journal of Hospital Infection 118, 15-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2021.09.007. |
| 110. | Moran, M. B., Frank, L. B., Zhao, N., Gonzalez, C., Thainiyom, P., Murphy, S. T., & Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (2016). An Argument for Ecological Research and Intervention in Health Communication. Journal of Health Communication 21(2), 135-138. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2015.1128021. |
| 111. | Morris, R. L., Kennedy, A., & Sanders, C. (2016). Evolving ‘self’-management: Exploring the role of social network typologies on individual long-term condition management. Health Expectations 19(5), 1044-1061. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12394. |
| 112. | Msimang, A., Tandlich, R. (2025). Links between human and animal life in the Age of Anthropocene: from molecules, through reactions to cells, development and ethical implications. The Animal Biology Journal (Ukraine) 27(3), 3-19. https://doi.org/10.15407/animbiol27.03.003. |
| 113. | Mundeva, H., Snyder, J., Ngilangwa, D. P., & Kaida, A. (2018). Ethics of task shifting in the health workforce: Exploring the role of community health workers in HIV service delivery in low- and middle-income countries. BMC Medical Ethics 19(1), Article number 71. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-018-0312-3. |
| 114. | Mthombeni, S. I., Vincent Lambert, C. (2025). The migration of South African emergency care practitioners to the Middle East’, Health SA - Gesondheid 30(0), Article number a2788. https://doi.org/10.4102/hsag.v30i0.2788. |
| 115. | Musoke, D., Kitutu, F., Mugisha, L., Amir, S., Brandish, C., Ikhile, D., Kajumbula, H., Kizito, I., Lubega, G., Niyongabo, F., Ng, B., O’driscoll, J., Russell-Hobbs, K., Winter, J., & Gibson, L. (2020). A One Health Approach to Strengthening Antimicrobial Stewardship in Wakiso District, Uganda. Antibiotics 9, Article number 764. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9110764. |
| 116. | Naledi, T., Barron, P., & Schneider, H. (2011). Primary health care in SA since 1994 and implications of the new vision for PHC re-engineering. South African Health Review, 17-28. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC119087 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 117. | Neuhauser, L., & Kreps, G. L. (2014). Integrating design science theory and methods to improve the development and evaluation of health communication programs. Journal of Health Communication 19(12), 1460-1471. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2014.954081. |
| 118. | Nhokodi, T., Mutingwende, N., Maguire, K., Ristvej, J., Wilhelmi, B. S., Tandlich, R. (2023a). Potential solutions for increasing resilience of drinking water supply through the public-private partnership in a South African municipality. Journal of Emergency Management 21(8), 119-131. https://doi.org/10.5055/jem.0760. |
| 119. | Nhokodi, T., Sithole, T., Mutingwende, N., Ristvej, J., Tandlich, R. (2023b). Storage conditions, microbial quality, and transport costs of drinking water from alternative sources in a South African municipality. Journal of Emergency Management 21(8), 97-117. https://doi.org/10.5055/jem.0739. |
| 120. | Okeke, I. N. (2016). Laboratory systems as an antibacterial resistance containment tool in Africa. African Journal of Laboratory Medicine 5(3), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajlm.v5i3.497. |
| 121. | Oliffe, M., Thompson, E., Johnston, J., Freeman, D., Bagga, H., & Wong, P. K. K. (2019). Assessing the readability and patient comprehension of rheumatology medicine information sheets: A cross-sectional Health Literacy Study. BMJ Open 9(2), Article number e024582. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024582. |
| 122. | O’Neill, J. (2016). Tackling Drug-Resistant Infections Globally: Final Report and Recommendations. https://amr-review.org/sites/default/files/160525_Final%20paper_with%20cover.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 123. | Orkin, A. M., Rao, S., Venugopal, J., Kithulegoda, N., Wegier, P., Ritchie, S. D., VanderBurgh, D., Martiniuk, A., Salamanca-Buentello, F., & Upshur, R. (2021). Conceptual framework for task shifting and task sharing: An international Delphi study. Human Resources for Health 19(1), Article number 61. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-021-00605-z. |
| 124. | Osborne, R. H., Beauchamp, A., & Batterham, R. (2016). Health literacy: A concept with potential to greatly impact the infectious diseases field. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 43, 101-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2015.12.012. |
| 125. | Pavao, A. L. B., & Werneck, G. L. (2021). Health literacy in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Ciencia & Saude Coletiva 26(9), 4101-4114. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232021269.05782020. |
| 126. | Pearson, M., & Chandler, C. (2019). Knowing antimicrobial resistance in practice: A multi-country qualitative study with human and animal healthcare professionals. Global Health Action 12(sup1), Article number 1599560. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2019.1599560. |
| 127. | Perry, H. B., Dhillon, R. S., Liu, A., Chitnis, K., Panjabi, R., Palazuelos, D., Koffi, A. K., Kandeh, J. N., Camara, M., Camara, R., & Nyenswah, T. (2016). Community health worker programmes after the 2013–2016 Ebola outbreak. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 94(7), 551-553. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.15.164020. |
| 128. | Pietromonaco, P. R., & Collins, N. L. (2017). Interpersonal Mechanisms Linking Close Relationships to Health. The American Psychologist 72(6), 531-542. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000129. |
| 129. | Program for Appropriate Technology in Health. (1996). Developing Health and Family Planning Materials for Low-Literate Audiences: A Guide. https://media.path.org/documents/DC_Low_Literacy_Guide.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 130. | Qamar, A. K. A., Habboub, T. M., Elmanama, A. A. (2022). Antimicrobial resistance of bacteria isolated at the European Gaza Hospital before and after the Great March of Return protests: a retrospective study. The Lancet 399, Article number S14. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)01149-7/fulltext (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 131. | Ramsamy, Y., Steele, G., Parbhoo, N., Reddy, M., Ramjee, R. J., Naidoo, N., Mhlongo, T., & Nansook, H. B. (2019). Antimicrobial stewardship at Prince Mshiyeni Memorial Hospital in KwaZulu-Natal – a pharmacist’s perspective on this multidisciplinary strategy. SA Pharmaceutical Journal 86(5), 15-16. https://doi.org/10.10520/EJC-19bda6beae. |
| 132. | Ravindran, T. K. S., & Kelkar-Khambete, A. (2008). Gender mainstreaming in health: Looking back, looking forward. Global Public Health 3(Suppl 1), 121-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441690801900761. |
| 133. | Rawson, T. M., Moore, L. S. P., Zhu, N., Ranganathan, N., Skolimowska, K., Gilchrist, M., Satta, G., Cooke, G., & Holmes, A. (2020). Bacterial and Fungal Coinfection in Individuals With Coronavirus: A Rapid Review To Support COVID-19 Antimicrobial Prescribing. Clinical Infectious Diseases 71(9), 2459-2468. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa530. |
| 134. | ReAct. (2019). Tracking antimicrobial resistance in the Sustainable Development Goals. https://www.reactgroup.org/news-and-views/news-and-opinions/year-2019/tracking-antimicrobial-resistance-in-the-sustainable-development-goals/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 135. | ReAct. (2021). 5 years after the UN Political Declaration on AMR – where are we now? – 2021. ReAct. https://www.reactgroup.org/news-and-views/news-and-opinions/year-2021/5-years-after-the-political-declaration-on-amr-where-are-we-now/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 136. | Reeves, E., Fyfe, A., & Bain, A. (2020). Health Literacy in the United States of America: Cost Perspectives. International Journal of E-Healthcare Information Systems, 7, 182-188. https://doi.org/10.20533/ijehis.2046.3332.2020.0026. |
| 137. | Rural Health Information Hub. (2023). Roles of Community Health Workers - RHIhub Toolkit. https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/toolkits/community-health-workers/1/roles (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 138. | Sartelli, M., C. Hardcastle, T., Catena, F., Chichom-Mefire, A., Coccolini, F., Dhingra, S., Haque, M., Hodonou, A., Iskandar, K., Labricciosa, F. M., Marmorale, C., Sall, I., & Pagani, L. (2020). Antibiotic Use in Low and Middle-Income Countries and the Challenges of Antimicrobial Resistance in Surgery. Antibiotics 9(8), Article number 497. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9080497. |
| 139. | Services SETA (2024). Occupational Qualifications - Occupational Certificate: Healthcare Cleaner. https://servicesseta.org.za/skills-development-providers/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 140. | Sharma, S., Tandlich, R., Docrat, M., Srinivas, S. (2020). Antibiotic procurement and ABC analysis for a comprehensive primary health care clinic in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases 35(1), Article number a134. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v35i1.134. |
| 141. | Sharma, S. (2023). Health communication for antimicrobial resistance and stewardship in the Makana Local Municipality, South Africa. PhD thesis, Rhodes University, Makhanda, South Africa. |
| 142. | Sharma, S., Srinivas, S., Tandlich, R. (2025). Development of health information materials on antimicrobial resistance with lay workers in Grahamstown/Makhanda, South Africa. Frontiers in Public Health 13, Article number 1542448. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1542448. |
| 143. | Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information 22(2), 63-75. https://doi.org/10.3233/EFI-2004-22201. |
| 144. | Snyder, L. B., Hamilton, M. A., Mitchell, E. W., Kiwanuka-Tondo, J., Fleming-Milici, F., & Proctor, D. (2004). A meta-analysis of the effect of mediated health communication campaigns on behavior change in the United States. Journal of Health Communication, 9(Suppl 1), 71-96. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730490271548. |
| 145. | Sobuwa, Y. (2025). Some junior doctors struggle to find jobs, but aspiring medics are not deterred https://health-e.org.za/2025/01/24/some-junior-doctors-struggle-to-find-jobs-but-aspiring-medics-are-not-deterred/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 146. | Sorensen, K., Van den Broucke, S., Fullam, J., Doyle, G., Pelikan, J., Slonska, Z., Brand, H., & (HLS-EU) Consortium Health Literacy Project European. (2012). Health literacy and public health: A systematic review and integration of definitions and models. BMC Public Health 12(1), Article number 80. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-80. |
| 147. | Sorensen, K., Pelikan, J., Röthlin, F., Ganahl, K., Slonska, Z., Doyle, G., Fullam, J., Kondilis, B., Agrafiotis, D., Uiters, E., Falcón, M., Mensing, M., Tchamov, K., Van den Broucke, S., & Brand, H. (2015). Health literacy in Europe: Comparative results of the European health literacy survey (HLS-EU). European Journal of Public Health 25(6), 1053-1058. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckv043. |
| 148. | South African Medical Research Council. (2020). International research collaboration to tackle antimicrobial resistance by tapping into South Africa’s rich biodiversity. https://www.amr-insights.eu/international-research-collaboration-to-tackle-antimicrobial-resistance-by-tapping-into-south-africas-rich-biodiversity/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 149. | South African Medical Research Council & GARDP. (2016). Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Research and Innovation: Addressing Africa’s Regional Priorities—Meeting Report. https://dndi.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/GARDP_SAMRC_MeetingReport.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 150. | South African National Department of Health (NDOH, 2015). Implementation plan for the antimicrobial resistance strategy framework in South Africa: 2014-2019 https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Implementation-Plan-for-the-Antimicrobial-Resistance-Strategy-Framework-in-South-Africa-2014-2019.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 151. | South African National Department of Health (NDOH, 2017). Minister Aaron Motsoaledi: Employment of doctors and pharmacist in public service. https://www.gov.za/speeches/employment-doctors-and-pharmacist-19-jan-2017-0000 |
| 152. | South African National Department of Health /South African Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (NDOH/DAFF, 2017-2024). SOUTH AFRICAN ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE NATIONAL STRATEGY FRAMEWORK; A ONE HEALTH APPROACH 2017-2024. https://knowledgehub.health.gov.za/system/files/elibdownloads/2023-04/AMR%2520National%2520Action%2520Plan%25202018%2520-%25202024.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 153. | South African National Health Act no. 61 of 2003 (NHA, 2003-present). Available at: https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/a61-03.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 154. | South Africa National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD, 2018). Draft Guidelines on Management and Control of Human Anthrax in South Africa 2018. https://www.nicd.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Anthrax-Draft-Guideline-26-October-2018-NICD-WR-7-Nov-2018.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 155. | South African National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD, 2023-2025). Antimicrobial resistance dashboard. https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiZWJiY2IxMWEtOTlmMC00NGRiLWFiODYtZjY0YTdkNDkxMTk1I |
| 156. | iwidCI6IjI1M2Q3NGI2LThlMDAtNDc3OC04NWEyLTMwOWIwODA4YzQ2MyJ9 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 157. | South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA, 2022-2025). Occupational certificate: Healthcare Cleaner. https://regqs.saqa.org.za/viewQualification.php?id=118730 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 158. | South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA, 2023-2026). Higher Certificate in Healthcare Management. https://regqs.saqa.org.za/viewQualification.php?id=120340 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 159. | Stålsby Lundborg, C., & Tamhankar, A. J. (2014). Understanding and changing human behaviour—Antibiotic mainstreaming as an approach to facilitate modification of provider and consumer behaviour. Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences 119(2), 125-133. https://doi.org/10.3109/03009734.2014.905664. |
| 160. | StopAMR. (2020, October 15). AMR impacts 12 of 17 UN SDGs, but not mentionned in any way. Why? https://www.stopamr.eu/blog/surveillance-monitoring/amr-impacts-12-of-17-un-sdgs/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 161. | Tapp, H., White, L., Steuerwald, M., & Dulin, M. (2013). Use of community-based participatory research in primary care to improve healthcare outcomes and disparities in care. Journal of Comparative Effectiveness Research 2(4), 405-419. https://doi.org/10.2217/cer.13.45. |
| 162. | The Economist Intelligence Unit. (2021). Health literacy around the world: Policy approaches to wellbeing through knowledge and empowerment. https://impact.economist.com/perspectives/sites/default/files/lon_-_es_-_health_literacy_paper_v8_0.pdf and https://www.selfcarefederation.org/news-events/new-health-literacy-around-world-report-launches (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 163. | Thai, T., Salisbury, B. H., Zito, P. M. (2023-2025). Ciprofloxacin. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535454/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 164. | United Nations. (UN, 2016). Political Declaration of the High-Level Meeting of the General Assembly on Antimicrobial Resistance : https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/842813 |
| 165. | United Nations (UN, undated). Goals 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal3 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 166. | United Nations Children’s Fund. (UNICEF, 2005). Strategic Communication—For behaviour and social change in South Asia. UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/cbsc/files/Strategic_Communication_for_Behaviour_and_Social_Change.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 167. | United Nations Development Programme. (UNDP, 2020). The Antimicrobial Resistance Multi-Partner Trust Fund. https://mptf.undp.org/fund/amr00 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 168. | United Nations Development Programme. (UNDP, 2022). Sustainable Development Goals. https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 169. | University of Cape Town. (2013). Oral histories and archiving memories in South Africa. https://humanities.uct.ac.za/apc/oral-histories-and-archiving-memories-south-africa |
| 170. | University of Virginia. (2025). Ethnographic Research. https://hrpp.research.virginia.edu/teams/irb-sbs/researcher-guide-irb-sbs/ethnographic-research (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 171. | United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2025). Antimicrobial Resistance: Causes and How It Spreads. https://www.cdc.gov/antimicrobial-resistance/causes/index.html (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 172. | United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, undated). The National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH): Biological hazards. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/learning/safetyculturehc/module-2/2.html (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 173. | Van Boeckel, T. P., Gandra, S., Ashok, A., Caudron, Q., Grenfell, B. T., Levin, S. A., & Laxminarayan, R. (2014). Global antibiotic consumption 2000 to 2010: An analysis of national pharmaceutical sales data. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 14(8), 742-750. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70780-7. |
| 174. | Van Dijck, C., Vlieghe, E., & Cox, J. A. (2018). Antibiotic stewardship interventions in hospitals in low-and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 96(4), 266-280. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.17.203448. |
| 175. | Van Rensburg, H. C. (2014). South Africa’s protracted struggle for equal distribution and equitable access – still not there. Human Resources for Health 12(1), Article number 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-4491-12-26. |
| 176. | Vassilev, I., Rogers, A., Kennedy, A., & Koetsenruijter, J. (2014). The influence of social networks on self-management support: A metasynthesis. BMC Public Health 14(1), Article number 719. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-719. |
| 177. | Vassilev, I., Rogers, A., Kennedy, A., Wensing, M., Koetsenruijter, J., Orlando, R., Portillo, M. C., & Culliford, D. (2016). Social Network Type and Long-Term Condition Management Support: A Cross-Sectional Study in Six European Countries. Plos ONE 11(8), Article number e0161027. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161027. |
| 178. | Viens, A. M., Littmann, J. (2015 ). Is Antimicrobial Resistance a Slowly Emerging Disaster? Public Health Ethics 8(3), 255-265. doi: 10.1093/phe/phv015. |
| 179. | Walia, K., Ohri, V. C., & Mathai, D. (2015). Antimicrobial stewardship programme (AMSP) practices in India. The Indian Journal of Medical Research 142(2), 130-138. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-5916.164228. |
| 180. | Walter, N., Ball-Rokeach, S. J., Xu, Y., & Broad, G. M. (2018). Communication Ecologies: Analyzing Adoption of False Beliefs in an Information-Rich Environment. Science Communication 40(5), 650-668. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547018793427. |
| 181. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 1978). Primary health care: Report of the International Conference on Primary Health Care, Alma-Ata, USSR, 6-12 September 1978 / jointly sponsored by the World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9241800011 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 182. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 1986). Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. https://www.who.int/teams/health-promotion/enhanced-wellbeing/first-global-conference (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 183. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2008). Task shifting: Rational redistribution of tasks among health workforce teams: Global Recommendations and Guidelines. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43821/9789?sequence=1 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 184. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2013). Health literacy - The solid facts. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/128703/e96854.pdf and https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/ttr_taskshifting_en_0.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 185. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2015a). Antibiotic Resistance: Multi-country public awareness survey. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/194460/9789241509817_eng.pdf and https://iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/c629209a-fc45-45e0-b84b-b3ff9917bb20/content (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 186. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2015b). Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance. WHO. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241509763 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 187. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2015c). WHO report finds systems to combat antibiotic resistance lacking. https://www.who.int/news/item/29-04-2015-who-report-finds-systems-to-combat-antibiotic-resistance-lacking (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 188. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2016a). Global strategy on human resources for health: Workforce 2030. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/250368/9789241511131-eng.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 189. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2016b). At UN, global leaders commit to act on antimicrobial resistance. https://www.who.int/news/item/21-09-2016-at-un-global-leaders-commit-to-act-on-antimicrobial-resistance (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 190. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2017a). WHO publishes list of bacteria for which new antibiotics are urgently needed. https://www.who.int/news/item/27-02-2017-who-publishes-list-of-bacteria-for-which-new-antibiotics-are-urgently-needed (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 191. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2017b). What needs to be done to solve the shortage of health workers in the African Region. https://www.afro.who.int/news/what-needs-be-done-solve-shortage-health-workers-african-region (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 192. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2018a). Collaborating Centres: Antimicrobial resistance, antimicrobial use, and infection prevention. https://www.who.int/initiatives/glass/network (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 193. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2018b). Strategic and Technical Advisory Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (STAG-AMR) - Report of Ninth Meeting 26-27 February 2018 WHO Headquarters, Geneva. https://www.who.int/groups/strategic-and-technical-advisory-group-on-antimicrobial-resistance (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 194. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2018c). WHO competency framework for health workers’ education and training on antimicrobial resistance. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/who-competency-framework-for-health-workers%E2%80%99-education-and-training-on-antimicrobial-resistance (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 195. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2018d). Antimicrobial Consumption Monitoring in Mauritius. https://www.afro.who.int/news/antimicrobial-consumption-monitoring-mauritius (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 196. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2018e). Antimicrobial resistance factsheet. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs194/en/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 197. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2019a). Health workers’ education and training on antimicrobial resistance: Curricula guide. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329380/9789241516358-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y and https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353377190_HEALTH_WORKERS’_EDUCATION_AND_TRAINING_ON_ANTIMICROBIAL_RESISTANCE_CURRICULA_GUIDE_HEALTH_WORKERS’_EDUCATION_AND_TRAINING_ON_ANTIMICROBIAL_RESISTANCE_CURRICULA_GUIDE_Health_workers’_education_and_trai (website accessed |
| 198. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2019b). No time to Wait: Securing the future from drug-resistant infections—Report to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/documents/no-time-to-wait-securing-the-future-from-drug-resistant-infections-en.pdf?sfvrsn=5b424d7_6&download=true (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 199. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2019c). In the face of slow progress, WHO offers a new tool and sets a target to accelerate action against antimicrobial resistance. https://www.who.int/news/item/18-06-2019-in-the-face-of-slow-progress-who-offers-a-new-tool-and-sets-a-target-to-accelerate-action-against-antimicrobial-resistance (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 200. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2019d). Antimicrobial stewardship programmes in health-care facilities in low—And middle -income countries. https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241515481 and https://www.paho.org/en/documents/antimicrobial-stewardship-programmes-health-care-facilities-low-and-middle-income (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 201. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2020). Public discussion—Draft terms of reference of the Independent Panel on Evidence for Action Against Antimicrobial Resistance. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/public-discussion-draft-terms-of-reference-independent-panel-on-evidence-amr (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 202. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2021a). WHO AMR Newsletter—Spring 2021. https://amr.cmail19.com/t/ViewEmai40EF23F30FEl/d/A1A347D2153EC01725DED/1A34B379781DD0F5A29558A201773426 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 203. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2021b). WHO AMR Newsletter - May 2021. https://amr.cmail19.com/t/ViewEmail/d/67C91CCC49FAC6F52540EF23F30FEDED (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 204. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2021c). WHO AMR Newsletter - September 2021. https://amr.cmail20.com/t/ViewEmail/d/5E8BA19976A13CC22540EF23F30FEDED (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 205. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2021d). Strengthening infection prevention and control in primary care. https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789240035249 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 206. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2021e). WHO Access, Watch, Reserve (AWaRe) classification of antibiotics for evaluation and monitoring of use. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/2021-aware-classification (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 207. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2021f). WHO Model List of Essential Medicines - 22nd List. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MHP-HPS-EML-2021.02 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 208. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2021g). Stronger governance needed to fight superbugs in Africa: Antimicrobial Resistance threatens Africa’s development. https://www.afro.who.int/news/stronger-governance-needed-fight-superbugs-africa-antimicrobial-resistance-threatens-africas (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 209. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2021h). The WHO Essential Medicines List Antibiotic Book: Improving antibiotic AWaReness. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/the-who-essential-medicines-list-antibiotic-book-improving-antibiotic-awareness (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 210. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2021i). Tripartite and UNEP support OHHLEP’s definition of ‘One Health’. https://www.who.int/news/item/01-12-2021-tripartite-and-unep-support-ohhlep-s-definition-of-one-health (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 211. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2021j). WHO AMR Newsletter - December 2021. https://amr.cmail20.com/t/ViewEmail/d/473006C11C3F18F52540EF23F30FEDED?alternativeLink=True (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 212. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022a). Framework and Toolkit for Infection Prevention and Control in Outbreak Preparedness, Readiness and Response at the Health Care Facility Level. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/361522/9789240051027-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 213. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022b). Social determinants of health. https://www.who.int/health-topics/social-determinants-of-health (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 214. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022c). WHO AMR Newsletter—March 2022. https://amr.cmail20.com/t/ViewEmail/d/30710EBCC90DC9932540EF23F30FEDED/CBBEA971FE49FED69E794568BD214575?alternativeLink=True (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 215. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022d). Increasing momentum to address Antimicrobial Resistance in Zimbabwe: Commitment of the government and the UN Country Team. https://www.afro.who.int/countries/zimbabwe/news/increasing-momentum-address-antimicrobial-resistance-zimbabwe-commitment-government-and-un-country (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 216. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022e). Global report on infection prevention and control. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240051164 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 217. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022f). WHO AMR Newsletter—June 2022. https://amr.cmail19.com/t/ViewEmail/d/26CCE3D84096D38F2540EF23F30FEDED?alternativeLink=True (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 218. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022g). WHO AMR Newsletter—October 2022. https://amr.cmail20.com/t/ViewEmail/d/1B4ACA4402B422D02540EF23F30FEDED/244BF4E3F7509A4EF351F20C80B74D5E?alternativeLink=False (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 219. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022h). Supporting countries with national action plan implementation. https://www.who.int/activities/supporting-countries-with-national-action-plan-implementation-and-monitoring (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 220. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022i). Monitoring antimicrobial resistance trends to save lives. https://www.afro.who.int/countries/democratic-republic-of-congo/news/monitoring-antimicrobial-resistance-trends-save-lives (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 221. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022j). Ethiopia commemorates World Antimicrobial Awareness Week, launches Sector-Specific Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance Prevention and Containment. https://www.afro.who.int/countries/ethiopia/news/ethiopia-commemorates-world-antimicrobial-awareness-week-launches-sector-specific-plan-antimicrobial (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 222. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2022k). Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) Report 2022. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240062702 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 223. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2023a). Coordinating R&D on antimicrobial resistance. https://www.who.int/activities/coordinating-r-and-d-on-antimicrobial-resistance (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 224. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2023b). Fostering international cooperation on antimicrobial resistance. https://www.who.int/activities/fostering-international-cooperation-on-antimicrobial-resistance (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 225. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2023c). Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership. https://www.who.int/groups/gardp (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 226. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2023d). Optimizing use of antimicrobial medicines. https://www.who.int/activities/optimizing-selection-and-use-of-antimicrobial-medicines (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 227. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2023e). Raising awareness and educating on antimicrobial resistance. https://www.who.int/activities/raising-awareness-and-educating-on-antimicrobial-resistance (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 228. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2023-2025). Antimicrobial resistance. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 229. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2025a). Global antibiotic resistance surveillance report 2025. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240116337 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 230. | World Health Organisation. (WHO, 2025b). Health literacy. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/health-literacy (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 231. | World Health Organisation and the United Nations Children’s Fund. (WHO & UNICEF, 2018). Global Conference on Primary Health Care—Declaration of Astana. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/primary-health/declaration/gcphc-declaration.pdf (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 232. | Wilkinson, A., Ebata, A., & MacGregor, H. (2019). Interventions to Reduce Antibiotic Prescribing in LMICs: A Scoping Review of Evidence from Human and Animal Health Systems. Antibiotics 8(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics8010002 |
| 233. | World Bank. (2016). By 2050, drug-resistant infections could cause global economic damage on par with 2008 financial crisis. World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2016/09/18/by-2050-drug-resistant-infections-could-cause-global-economic-damage-on-par-with-2008-financial-crisis (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 234. | World Bank & WHO. (2022). Sustaining Action Against Antimicrobial Resistance: A Case Series of Country Experiences. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/38162 (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 235. | World Economic Forum. (2022). It’s a bigger killer than HIV/AIDS and malaria. Here’s what we can do to beat antimicrobial resistance. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/11/antimicrobial-resistance-week-the-silent-pandemic-solutions/ (website accessed on 31st December 2025). |
| 236. | Wyke, S., Adamson, J., Dixon, D., & Hunt, K. (2013). Consultation and illness behaviour in response to symptoms: A comparison of models from different disciplinary frameworks and suggestions for future research directions. Social Science & Medicine 86, 79-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.03.007 |
| 237. | Young, V. L., Cole, A., Lecky, D. M., Fettis, D., Pritchard, B., Verlander, N. Q., Eley, C. V., & McNulty, C. A. M. (2017). A mixed-method evaluation of peer-education workshops for school-aged children to teach about antibiotics, microbes and hygiene. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 72(7), 2119-2126. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkx083 |
Back to article
Academicus
International Scientific Journal
pISSN 2079-3715
eISSN 2309-1088
Address:
Sheshi i Flamurit, Rruga Muze
Al-9401 Vlorë, Albania
Tel: +355 68 60 60 555
info@academicus.edu.al
https://academicus.edu.al